As early as 1938, a seminar of small business men in Washington heard a statement from one Jesse H. Jones, who owned considerable business interests, and who was, at that time, Chairman of the United States Reconstruction Finance Corporation. He distinguished rather crudely between large and small business as follows:

By little business is meant something comparative or relative. Organisations like General Motors, big Steel, little Steel, and so forth are big business - the rest of us are little business (Jones, 1938)

[Williams (1975), p. 17]

Jones, J. H. quoted in New York Times. Feb.3, 1938, p. 14.

[Williams (1975), p. 736 (from the bibliography)]

WASHINGTON, Feb. 2. - Jesse H. Jones, chairman of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, speaking 'as a little business man myself,' drew a distinction between big and little business at the 'small' business conference.

'By little business is meant something comparative, or relative,' he said. 'Organizations like General Motors, big Steel, little Steel, and so forth, are big business - the rest of us are little business.

'We're happy when we're making a little money, when we're getting along. We're not happy when we're not making money.'

Jesse H. Jones, owner of large business interests in Texas and then chairman of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, speaking 'as a little business man myself' to the 1938 conference of small businessmen in Washington, drew a distinction between big and little business in the following terms: 'By little business is meant something comparative or relative. Organizations like General Motors, big Steel, little Steel, and so forth are big business - the rest of us are little business. We're happy when we're making a little money, when we're getting along. We're not happy when we're not making money.'[l]

[1] New York Times, February 3, 1938, p. 14.

About the same time, Ernest G. Draper, the United States Assistant Secretary of Commerce, in a somewhat more exacting statement, classified the 'more than 90 per cent of the manufacturing firms employing less than 500' as small business. (Elliston 1938).

[Williams (1975), p. 17]

Elliston, H. B. 'Little Businessman, What Now?'. Saturday Evening Post No. 210. April 16, 1938, p. 39.

[Williams (1975), p. 730 (from the bibliography)]

All that came from the department was Assistant Secretary Draper's introductory statement:

We have heard so much about gigantic corporations of America and the amazing success of mass-production methods that we are apt to forget the importance of small business to this country. The fact of the matter is that more than 90 per cent of the manufacturing concerns employ less than 500, and these companies do more than 60 per cent of all the business of the United States; and so, regardless of big business, they have been for many years and are today the backbone of the industrial life of America.

윌리엄스 교수는 자신의 박사논문에서 엘리스톤(H. B. Elliston)의 문헌을 인용하며 드라퍼(Ernest G. Draper)의 발언을 소개하는데, 여기서 드라퍼는 “firms employing”이라고 언급했다. 반면에 실제로 엘리스톤의 문헌 원문을 살펴보면 드라퍼가 “concerns employ”라고 언급한 사실을 보라.

The then Assistant Secretary of Commerce, Ernest G. Draper, included in the category of small business the 'more than 500 per cent of the manufacturing firms employing less than 500.[3]

[3] H. B. Elliston, 'Little Businessman, What Now?' Saturday Evening Post, 210 (April 6, 1938), p. 39.

More than twenty years earlier a similar thesis was presented by the initial president of the American Economic History Association, Edwin F. Gay (1923, p. 12), who wrote that

the self-centered, active individual is a disruptive force, and there are periods in the rhythm of history when the cake of custom must be broken, when that disruptive, innovating energy is socially advantageous and must be given freer opportunity.

[Williams (1975), p. 87]

Gay, E. F. 'The Rhythm of History', Harvard Graduates' Magazine. Vol.32, 1923.

[Williams (1975), p. 732 (from the bibliography)]

윌리엄스 교수의 박사논문에서 직접인용(들여쓰기)을 하며 출처로 명시한 (Edwin Francis Gay, "The rhythm of history", Harvard Graduates' Magazine, volume XXXII, September 1923, pages 1-16) 12 페이지에는 다음 내용이 확인된다:

The self-centred, active individual is a disruptive force, and there are periods in the rhythm of history when the cake of custom must be broken, when that disruptive, innovating energy is socially advantageous and must be given freer opportunity.

Twenty years ago Mr. Gay gave the Phi Beta Kappa Commencement address at Harvard. He entitled it 'The Rhythm of History,' and not infrequently in his later years he referred to the theme that he embodied in it:

The amount of permissible free competition ... varies with the social need. In differing degree it must always be active - this is what the socialists fail adequately to recognize - but it must always be subject more or less to group control, for the interest of the group predominates, and each member of the group consciously or unconsciously acknowledges this. The self-centered, active individual is a disruptive force, and there are periods in the rhythm of history when the cake of custom must be broken, when that disruptive, innovating energy is socially advantageous and must be given freer opportunity. But the social or group motive is even then latently powerful, while for normally longer periods of the rhythm the motive of social stability and order enjoys the more marked social approval. It then becomes active in building and defending social institutions and in seeking security for its members.[1]

[l.] Edwin Francis Gay, 'The Rhythm of History,' Harvard Graduates' Magazine, 32:12 (1923-1924).

[1] Edwin Francis Gay, 'The Rhythm of History,' Harvard Graduates' Magazine, XXXII (1923-24), 12.

Motivation theory attempts to explain

how behavior gets started, is energized, is sustained, is directed, is stopped, and what kind of subjective reaction is present in the organism while all this is going on. (Jones, 1959, p. 11)

[Williams (1975), pp. 103-104]

Jones, M. R.(ed.) Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Vol. 7. Lincoln: Nebraska University Press, 1959.

[Williams (1975), p. 736 (from the bibliography)]

Motivation theory attempts to explain 'how behavior gets started, is energized, is sustained, is directed, is stopped, and what kind of subjective reaction is present in the organism while all this is going on' (Jones, 1959).

Jones, M. R., ed. Nebraska symposium on motivation. Lincoln: Nebraska University Press, 1959, 7.

Achievement knowledge for the businessman is nearly always expressed in monetary terms. The conventional view of economic man attributes to him the psychological characteristic known as the 'profit motive'. However, with the greater clarification of the fundamental motivation of the entrepreneur during the past 25 years, it is now more readily accepted that much of man's interest in profitability stems from his need for achievement, which is concerned with profitability because it provides concrete knowledge of competence or achievement.

Personal money income plays a highly important role in our society as a symbol of achievement. A man with a large income is likely to gain respect - not because of the income itself but because of the presumption that it is an index of his importance or competence (Sutton et al, 1956, p. 331).

[Williams (1975), p. 171]

Sutton, F. X., Harris, S.E., Kaysen, C. and Tobin, J. The American Business Creed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1956.

[Williams (1975), p. 747 (from the bibliography)]

Yet obviously no one would want to argue that these men had no interest in profitability. That interest can now be understood, not in terms of the naive psychology of the 'profit motive,' but in terms of a need for Achievement which is interested in profitability precisely because it gives definite knowledge of how competent one is. As expressed by Sutton et al., 'Personal money income plays a highly important role in our society as a symbol of achievement. A man with a large income is likely to gain respect not because of the income itself but because of the presumption that it is an index of his importance or competence.' (1956, P. 331.)

Sutton, F. X., Harris, S. E., Kaysen, C., & Tobin, J. The American business creed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer. Press, 1956.

Goffman (1959, p. 145) has indicated that 'the increasing ability with which one uses a predominant strategy provides a certain amount of security and self-confidence for the person'.

[Williams (1975), p. 185]

Goffman, E. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City, New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959.

[Williams (1975), p. 732 (from the bibliography)]

The increasing ability with which one uses a predominant strategy provides a certain amount of security and self-confidence for the person [3].

3. Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959.

Cofer and Appley (1964, p.441) have defined stress as 'a force which, acting on a body, produces strain or deformation', and have added that the term 'has been used as a synonym for anxiety, conflict, ego-involvement, frustration, threat, and emotionality...' (ibid., p.449). With a slightly different emphasis, Lazarus, Deese and Osler (1952), p.295) have stated that 'stress occurs when a particular situation threatens the attainment of some goal'. Adding a further aspect, Appley (1962, p. 880) proposed that stress is 'the state of an organism in any situation where his general well-being is threatened, and where no readily available response exists for the reduction of the threat'.

[Williams (1975), p. 203]

Appley, M. H. 'Motivation, Threat Perception and the Induction of Psychological Stress', Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Psychologists, Bonn, 1960. Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Co., 1962, pp. 880-881.

[Williams (1975), p. 725 (from the bibliography)]

Cofer, C. N. and Appley, M. H. Motivation: Theory and Research. New York: Wiley, 1964.

[Williams (1975), p. 728 (from the bibliography)]

Psychological stress is defined as 'the state of an organism in any situation where his general well-being is threatened, and where no readily available response exists for the reduction of the threat.' [Appley (1961), p. 880]

윌리엄스 교수의 박사논문에서는 'and'가 이탤릭체로 적혀있으나 M. H. Appley 의 원 출처에서는 이탤릭체가 아님을 보라.

In a previous definition, one of us (Appley, 1962a) proposed that stress is 'the state of an organism in any situation where his general well-being is threatened, and where no readily available response exists for the reduction of the threat' (p. 880).

Appley, M. H. (1962a) Motivation, threat perception, and the induction of psychological stress. Proc. Sixteenth Internat. Congr. Psychol., Bonn 1960. Amsterdam: North Holland Publ. Co., pp. 880-881.

Each of these possible responses is a means of reducing the stress created by interpersonal conflict (Steiner, 1970). Any one, or any combination, of the available techniques may be used to dissipate stress, but subjects have shown a significant tendency to rely upon a single response instead of using two or more simultaneously. According to Steiner (1966, p. 187) 'different individuals have revealed preferences for different responses, and these preferences have been found to be related to scores on personality variables'.

[Williams (1975), pp. 208-209]

Steiner, I. D. 'The Resolution of Interpersonal Disagreements' in Maher, B.(ed.) Progress in Experimental Personality Research Vol. III. New York: Academic Press, 1966).

Steiner, I. D. 'Strategies for Controlling Stress in Interpersonal Situations, in McGrath, J. D. (ed.) Social and Psychological Factors in Stress. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc., 1970. pp. 140-158.

[Williams (1975), p. 746 (from the bibliography)]

Different individuals have revealed preferences for different responses, and these preferences have been found to be related to scores on personality variables (Steiner, 1966).

Steiner, I. D. The resolution of interpersonal disagreements. In B. Maher (Ed.), Progress in experimental personality research. Vol. III. New York: Academic Press, 1966.

For example, Bromley (1956) classified 256 subjects into four age groups which were similar in average social background and I.Q. (Wechsler-Bellevue). These subjects were then given a test involving, without time limits, the mental operations of abstracting, serializing, and productive thinking, as well as persistence, flexibility, and imaginative exploration. Bromley's findings (Table 2.22), with a 'normal' sample, appear to match Lehman's results for outstanding individuals.

TABLE 2.22 RESPONSES TO THE SHAW TEST OF CREATIVITY

Source: adapted from Bromley, 1956

[Williams (1975), p. 239]

Bromley, D. B. 'Some Experimental Tests of the Effect of Age on Creative Intellectual Output', Journal of Gerontology. Vol.11, 1956, pp. 74-82.

[Williams (1975), p. 727 (from the bibliography)]

Table 2. Responses to the Shaw Test in Terms of Grade and Age Group.

위 (Bromley, 1956) 의 도표2(Table 2)를 보면, 끝에서 두 번째 줄 (ABCD에 대한 평균)에서 12.8, 11.2, 11.4, 9.6 총 네 가지 수치가 제시된 것을 볼 수 있다. 이 네 가지 수치는 윌리엄스 교수 박사논문의 도표2.22(Table 2.22)에서 ‘Mean total output of responses’ 줄에도 똑같이 나와 있다. 

... a recent study by Bromley (1956) which was conceived as directly related to Lehman's investigations. Bromley classified 256 subjects into four age groups which were similar in average social background and Wechsler-Bellevue I.Q. These subjects were given the Shaw Test, consisting of wooden blocks which could be arranged according to a number of principles of logical order. In terms of face validity, the test involves, without time limits, the mental operations of abstracting, serializing, and productive thinking as well as persistence, flexibility, and imaginative exploration. Table 11 compares age differences in responses of the highest and lowest quality and also shows that the total output decreases with age less rapidly than the high-quality output.

TABLE 11 

Responses to the Shaw Test (Creativity)

(N=64)

Bromley, D. B. 1956. Some experimental tests of the effect of age on creative intellectual output. J. Gerontol., 11, 74-82.

이를 보면, (Jones, 1959)는 ‘Percentage high quality responses’와 ‘Percentage low quality responses’를 계산하는 과정에서 세 개의 사소한 오류를 범한 것을 알 수 있다 - 이 수치들이 방금 위에서 계산한 브롬리(Bromley)의 ‘A responses’와 ‘D responses’의 소수값(정수 백분율이 아닌)이라고 가정한다면 말이다.